The only surviving document with Cleopatra’s handwriting!
Cleopatra VII was the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt. She is often remembered for her influence on Roman politics and her dramatic love affair with Mark Antony and her tragic end. Yet, beyond these tales, an important document has emerged that may reveal her in a new light. It is a papyrus featuring Cleopatra’s own handwriting. This rare artifact, dated 23 February 33 BCE, is a royal ordinance granting financial privileges to a Roman absentee landlord. This discovery also gives a glimpse into Cleopatra’s administrative role and the realpolitik strategies she employed to maintain power.
In 2010, this papyrus document featuring Cleopatra’s handwriting went on display at Philadelphia’s Franklin Institute. The document also highlights her involvement in the administrative affairs of Egypt, countering the popular perception of Cleopatra as solely a seductress. Instead, this papyrus reveals her as a shrewd leader who skillfully navigated the complex political matters of the late Roman Republic. Now let us examine this interesting find and what it tells of that mighty queen.
The Context: Cleopatra, Antony, and the Absentee Landlord
The relationship between Cleopatra and Mark Antony has been well-documented, not just in historical accounts but also in literature and popular culture. Antony, a Roman general, became entangled with Cleopatra both romantically and politically after Julius Caesar’s assassination. Immediately following Caeser’s assassination Antony came into an alliance with his adopted son Octavian. We call this the Second Triumvirate. After getting rid of assassins including Brutus this alliance fell apart and they became enemies.
Mark Antony and Cleopatra’s union afterward, was both a love affair and a strategic alliance. It aimed at consolidating power against their mutual enemy, Octavian, who would later become Augustus, the first Emperor of Rome. During their alliance, Antony granted Cleopatra authority over vast territories and supported her efforts to consolidate power in Egypt.
The papyrus in question relates to Publius Canidius Crassus, a Roman general closely associated with Antony. Scholars like Peter van Minnen identify Canidius as the absentee landlord who received tax exemptions and protection for his workers and property from Cleopatra. Canidius, a trusted confidant of Antony, played a significant role in the ongoing conflict between Antony and Octavian. He commanded Antony’s land forces and was instrumental in Cleopatra’s inclusion in Antony’s military campaigns, against the advice of Antony’s other allies. This papyrus, therefore, represents a political maneuver by Cleopatra to secure loyalty from key Roman figures. But it also demonstrates her foresight in aligning with powerful individuals to protect her reign.
Decoding the Papyrus
The document grants Canidius and his heirs extensive economic privileges, including exemptions from export and import taxes on substantial amounts of wheat and wine. Specifically, the ordinance allows Canidius to export 10,000 artabas of wheat (approximately 300 tonnes) and import 5,000 amphorae of wine annually without paying any taxes.
Additionally, it exempts Canidius from taxes on all his land in Egypt, ensuring that he and his successors do not have to pay either to the state or any other account indefinitely. These generous fiscal incentives reveal Cleopatra’s strategic use of economic tools to build alliances and secure loyalty among influential Romans.
“We have granted to Publius Canidius (Crassus) and his heirs the annual exportation of 10,000 artabas of wheat and the annual importation of 5,000 Coan amphoras of wine without anyone exacting anything in taxes from him or any other expense whatsoever. We have also granted tax exemption on all the land he owns in Egypt on the understanding that he shall not pay any taxes, either to the state account or to the special account of us and others, in any way in perpetuity.”
Translation: van Minnen 2000 and 2003
Furthermore, the ordinance extends protections to the tenants working on Canidius’ land, exempting them from corvée labor and additional levies, including those imposed for military expenses.
The document even prevents the military from commandeering the beasts of burden and boats used on Canidius’ farms, safeguarding his agricultural productivity and trade operations. These measures were likely intended to maintain the economic stability and productivity of Canidius’ estates, ensuring his continued support for Cleopatra and Antony in their struggle against Octavian.
Cleopatra’s Handwriting: “Make it Happen!”
The most intriguing aspect of this papyrus is the final word, “ginestho” in Greek, which translates to “Make it happen!” Scholars like Peter van Minnen have argued that this could be Cleopatra’s handwriting, marking her direct involvement in the document’s creation. This suggestion is based on the context of the ordinance and the practice that only Cleopatra had the authority to sign off on such a decree. The handwriting at the end differs slightly from the rest of the text, adding weight to the hypothesis that this might indeed be her unique contribution.
If this is indeed Cleopatra’s handwriting, it not only represents the only surviving example of her script but also provides a rare glimpse into her active participation in the governance of her realm. While some scholars dispute this claim, arguing that the handwriting might not differ significantly from the rest, the possibility that this directive is Cleopatra’s own adds a personal dimension to our understanding of her rule. This phrase, simple yet authoritative, encapsulates her power to enforce policy and influence the lives of her subjects and allies alike.
The Significance of the Document in the Broader Historical Context
The papyrus is not just a testament to Cleopatra’s political savvy; it also highlights the broader dynamics of the time. The Roman presence in Egypt during the late Ptolemaic period involved complex interactions between local rulers and Roman officials. Cleopatra’s ability to grant such privileges to Roman citizens, including military figures like Canidius, indicates her diplomatic maneuvering to maintain her kingdom’s autonomy while aligning herself with Rome’s shifting power structures.
The Role of Papyrology in Uncovering History
The survival of this papyrus is remarkable given its journey through time. Discovered in mummy cartonnage—a type of ancient papier-mâché made from waste paper—this document survived only because it was repurposed for a different use. Such documents offer invaluable insights into the administrative workings of Cleopatra’s Egypt, allowing historians to piece together the economic and political strategies she employed.
However, papyrology is a field fraught with challenges. As seen in the debate over the identification of the absentee landlord, interpretations can vary widely based on the condition of the papyrus and the traces of ink left behind.
Conclusion
The papyrus featuring Cleopatra’s potential handwriting is more than just a curiosity; it is a critical piece of historical evidence that challenges and enriches our understanding of her reign. By examining this document, we see Cleopatra not just as a figure defined by her relationships with powerful men but as a ruler deeply involved in her time’s economic and political fabric. Whether or not Cleopatra penned the final word, this papyrus remains a testament to her strategic acumen and engagement in Egypt’s daily governance. As discoveries emerge, our understanding of Cleopatra will continue to evolve, but this document will always stand as a significant reminder of her enduring legacy.
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